GDF15 and acute myocardial infarction: While GDF-15 expression in tissues is low under normal physiological conditions, in pathological conditions, GDF-15 is produced by several cell types with ranging roles.16 In atherosclerotic models, GDF-15 has pro-inflammatory effects,17,18 whereas in acute myocardial infarction models in mice, GDF-15 has anti-inflammatory effects.19 Growth differentiation factor 15 is also expressed in response to hypoxia, inflammation, and oxidative stress.