TNF and bronchiectasis: A study of bronchiectasis revealed that patients with fungal sensitization were characterized by an increasing trend in sputum positivity of galactomannan and elevated sputum levels of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β, which are major cytokines produced by monocytes or monocyte-derived macrophages,12,34 which upregulate adhesion molecules in the endothelium and result in neutrophil and eosinophil airway recruitment.35