TNF and neoplasm: As shown in Figure 1, M1-type macrophages are stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-12, IL-1b and TNF-α) and chemokine ligands (CCL2, CCL5, CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11), which have pro-inflammatory and anti-tumor effects.