As the modulation of TGF-β-signaling in traumatic brain injury (TBI) has both beneficial and detrimental effects (48), it remains to be determined whether the suppression of TGF-β-signaling by A. cantonensis L5 EVs is beneficial for the pathogenesis of parasite infection or represents a protective response by the host. Here, TGFB1 is linked to parasitic infectious disease.