Moreover, the microbial community of water kefir exhibited a protective role in DSS-induced colitis in mice [259], by restoring the abnormal expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, COX-2, iNOS, and IL-10) and the inactivated Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4)-myeloid differentiation protein primary response 88 (MyD88)-NF-κB pathway. Here, TNF is linked to colitis.