AR and hypospadias: By highlighting miRNAs, such as miR-494, miR-145, miR-6756-5p, miR-182, miR-210, miR-143-3p, miR-556 and miR-200c, the present systematic review identifies key molecular pathways, including TGF-β, MAPK, PI3K/AKT, BMP and AR signaling (Fig. 2), that are crucial in regulating cellular processes, such as proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation resulting in hypospadias progression.