Interaction paradigms between ZNF165 and SMAD3 underscore its regulatory capacity on transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β)-responsive gene transcription [54], with distinct pathways elucidated in the proliferation and motility augmentation within hepatocellular carcinoma contexts, notably via tryptophan/kynurenine/AhR/CYP1A1 axis engagement [52]. Here, SMAD3 is linked to hepatocellular carcinoma.