Pathways involving growth factors (e.g., TGF-β, VEGF, and EGF), cytokines (e.g., IL-6 and TNF-α), and chemokines (e.g., CXCL12) play critical roles in modulating the behavior of both cancer and stromal cells (Zalpoor et al., 2022). This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and cancer.