TGFB1 and neoplasm: Table 1 shows the significant signaling pathways involved in TME-mediated cancer metastasis. For instance, TGF-β acts as a double-edged sword, suppressing early tumor development but paradoxically enhancing metastatic potential in advanced stages by inducing epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). EMT endows epithelial cells with mesenchymal properties, including enhanced migratory capacity, invasiveness, and resistance to apoptosis, thereby facilitating metastasis (Hao et al., 2019) (Figure 2).