TLR4 and autism spectrum disorder: Malaguarnera et al. [57] reported that the neuroinflammation induced by prenatal exposure to VPA in autism spectrum disorders increases the hippocampal tissue levels of TLR4 and NF-κB which enhance the progression of the pathogenic events of autism via increased expression of TGF-β1, MCP-1, and the proinflammatory cytokines.