Additionally, analysis of cisplatin cytotoxicity in HNSCC-PDO samples revealed that CES1-OE PDO (Fig. 9E) exhibited greater cisplatin resistance (IC50 = 4.447 μg/mL) compared to CES1-OE-NC (IC50 = 1.187 μg/mL), underscoring the role of CES1 in promoting cisplatin resistance in HNSCC. The gene discussed is CES1; the disease is head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.