SMAD3 and Hepatic fibrosis: In this model, the CCL4-induced hepatic fibrosis group showed significantly higher levels of TGF-β1, Smad3, and p-Smad3, whereas the CCL4 + ghrelin-treated group exhibited significantly lower levels of these markers, suggesting that ghrelin may reduce hepatic fibrosis by inhibiting Smad phosphorylation and blocking intracellular TGF-β signalling (Ref.