TNF and infection: Upon Plasmodium infection, innate immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) cells are activated, leading to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), which help control the infection and activate adaptive immune responses7.