TNF and hand, foot and mouth disease: Dysregulated inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-17F, IL-18, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon (IFN)-γ, IFN-γ-inducible protein-10 (IP-10), monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) have been identified in the serum or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of severe HFMD patients (14, 16).