INS and Insulin resistance: Figure 5 illustrates the insulin-like signaling pathways, highlighting the roles of Insulin-R and IGF-1R in enhancing mTOR activity and inhibiting autophagy. Insulin/IGF-1 signaling also influences aging and age-related diseases through the activation of STAT3 and induction of immunosuppression (74). Currently, it is well established that insulin resistance is associated with inflammation (75, 76). Additionally, aging leads to an increase in the number of immunosuppressive M2 macrophages in various mouse tissues, including the bone marrow, spleen, lungs, and skeletal muscles (77, 78).