VEGFA and colorectal carcinoma: The TGF-beta signaling pathway plays a crucial role in CRC through four primary mechanisms: promoting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by activating downstream signaling pathways (such as Smad-dependent and non-Smad-dependent pathways), enhancing angiogenesis by up-regulating angiogenesis-related factors (e.g., VEGF, MMPs, and Ang-2), inhibiting immune cell activation and function to create an immunosuppressive microenvironment, and regulating stem cell properties in CRC by modulating related signaling pathways such as Wnt/β-catenin and Notch (Li et al., 2022).