PPARA and intestinal disorder: The C2 and C3 N-acyl histamines were previously found to be elevated in the urine of patients with intestinal disorders, the histamine-C6 was found to be very modestly cytotoxic while related molecules that have longer chain fatty acids conjugated to them act on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α).58–60 PPAR-α protects from HIV-related systemic inflammation and improves intestinal barrier function.61,62 We did not find biological reports for the C4-C5 histamine conjugates, and it is not yet known if these specific N-acyl lipids also provide such protective effects.