AFP and hepatocellular carcinoma: In addition, the serum alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) level has long been a less invasive gold standard predictor of HCC [15]; however, the reliability of AFP may be compromised in patients with normal serum AFP levels, including HCC patients [16] and non-malignant cirrhotic patients [17], which necessitates the combination of other serum markers and imaging modalities [18].