TNF and infection: Another study used double-stranded RNA to mimic viral infection, showing that simulated infection in mucosal epithelial cells promotes the release of TNF-a, which subsequently stimulates the production of chemokine (C-X3-C motif) ligand 1 (CX3CL1) and the expression of adhesion molecules in mucosal endothelial cells and highlights the interactions between epithelial and endothelial cells in airway mucosa during infections [51].