TNF and neoplasm: Probiotic strains and bacterial CFSs that promote generalized mucosal immune responses via proinflammatory cytokine production (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) were found to fortify the host defense system and provide anti-pathogen and anti-tumor effects (Lee C. G. et al., 2023; Al-Najjar et al., 2024).