TNF and HIV infectious disease: Studies have shown that markers of immune activation, such as CD38 and HLA-DR on T cells, remain elevated in ART-treated individuals compared to uninfected controls [24,25]; (5) Inflammatory cytokine production: Complications associated with chronic HIV infection include increased in pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β, thus contributing to HIV-associated comorbidities like cardiovascular diseases [26].