INS and type 1 diabetes mellitus: Recent research using multi-omics technology has found that intestinal flora can directly act on pancreatic β-cells through the production of metabolites such as tyrosine, stimulating insulin secretion.62 Notably, pyruvate and butyric acid can also reduce blood glucose levels and increase insulin sensitivity by regulating glycogen synthesis and gluconeogenesis in hepatocytes, which helps alleviate the symptoms of T1DM patients.63