INS and type 1 diabetes mellitus: Moreover, probiotics enhance insulin secretion by up-regulating G protein-coupled receptor (GPCRs) 43/41, proglucagon, and proconvertase 1/3 activity, which triggers glucose-induced GLP-1 secretion and reduces pancreatic β-cells apoptosis to some extent.103 A clinical systematic evaluation and meta-analysis104 found that probiotic and prebiotic supplementation improved FBG, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), and C-peptide levels in patients with T1DM, while reducing insulin requirements to a certain extent.