TNF and neoplasm: This overexpression is associated with various pathological processes, such as tumor cell growth signaling, transcription factor regulation, apoptosis, metastasis, and drug resistance.51–56 CypA can alter the tumor microenvironment by fostering Th1 immune responses, modulating MMPs activity, and inducing proinflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and interferon gamma (IFNγ).