Increasing evidence showed that intracellular CypA can be secreted from various cell types, including vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC), macrophages and endothelial cells (EC), in response to proinflammatory stimuli like hypoxia, infection or oxidative stress, in an autocrine or paracrine response.40–42 This secreted CypA facilitates various intercellular communication, intercellular responses and participates in numerous physiological or pathological processes. The gene discussed is PPIA; the disease is infection.