TNF and neoplasm: Reijmen et al. [2021], in a preclinical lung tumor model, found that VNS stimulated lymphocytic infiltrates into tumors, enhanced the activation of intratumoral CD8+ T cells by upregulating IFN-γ and CD137, activation of dendritic cells, arresting the proliferation of MDSCs, and attenuating the inflammatory cytokine, TNF-α. In a small cohort of patients, tissue analysis was more informative than immune monitoring of peripheral blood; taken together these findings support further research to use VNS to optimize tumor response rates in patients with cancer [Reijmen et al., 2021].