TNF and irritable bowel syndrome: Based on the inflammatory activation symptoms of patients with IBS consuming ginger [10], after comparing the pathology of the intestinal segments (duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and colon), we found that ginger intake aggravated inflammatory infiltration of the small intestine (ileum) in mice (Fig. 1E and F and Figs. S3A to C and S4A), including a dose-dependent increase in the number of IBS-related mast cells in the intestinal mucosal area and level of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the mucosal area after inflammatory activation (Fig. 1G and H and Fig. S4B and C).