To determine whether precancerous and cancer microenvironments exhibited gene expression profiles consistent with macrophage polarization, we assessed expression of select mammalian markers for M1 polarization (IL1B, IL6, TNF, CXCL11, NOS2, TNFRSF1B, IL12B, and CD40) and M2 polarization (IL10, MARCO, ARG1, ALOX5AP, MRC1/CD206, TGFB1, and CD36) (Fig. 4G). Here, CD40 is linked to cancer.