VSIR and inflammatory bowel disease: Accordingly, depletion of CECs in pregnant mice induces a proinflammatory immune response, by reducing IL-4 and IL-10 production, while increasing TNF-α and IL-6 levels in placental tissues, which in turn results in fetal resorption (175, 203); however, in pregnant women with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), CECs are decreased in the peripheral blood, cord blood, and placenta tissue, and express lower levels of inhibitory molecules, including VISTA, TGF-β, and ROS.