TNF and proximal spinal muscular atrophy: In addition, a recent study revealed a significant increase in CSF levels of potent proinflammatory cytokines (i.e., IL-6 and TNF-α) in SMA type 1 patients compared to patients with milder forms of the disease (Nuzzo et al. 2023), while another study revealed increased levels of various cytokines (i.e., IL-1β and IL-6) in the blood of pediatric and adult SMA patients (Bonanno et al. 2022).