ACHE and Alzheimer disease: Although IPA has been suggested to have positive impacts on intestinal barrier function and immunity via AhR or PXR mediations and also on neurons to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, stress response through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, and Aβ fibril formation [371], it is difficult to conclude that IPA is beneficial in ADRD pathology, given that several contrasting clinical reports found higher IPA concentrations in patients with AD, PD, and multiple sclerosis [[372], [373], [374]].