TNF and Alzheimer disease: Regarding inflammation, signaling pathways involving nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and MAPKs are upregulated in reactive astrocytes [210,211], leading to increased production of inflammatory mediators, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), IL-1β, and IL-6 [212,213], which are commonly observed in the brains of AD patients.