PPARA and heart failure: Studies employing gain/loss-of-function approaches in mice have underscored the significance of PPAR-α in modulating the expression of genes involved in most steps of cardiac fatty acid utilization, such as the expression of CPT1 and medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase 1 (MCAD1).221–223 Nevertheless, understanding the regulatory mechanisms of PPAR-α in heart failure remains complex.