TNF and colitis: FSM4 treatment improved DSS-induced colitis, reduced macroscopic and microscopic damage, and reduced weight loss in mice, as well as inhibiting the expression of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-β, and COX-2 and promoting PPARγ expression; in addition, FSM4 modulated the gut microbiota composition and SCFA contents to regulate PPARγ [177].