AFP and hepatocellular carcinoma: Numerous epidemiological studies have established an association between type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and the incidence of HCC.[33,34] Miele et al observed a significant increase in HCC risk among patients with longer durations of T2DM.[35] Additionally, Shaoling et al found in a retrospective study that T2DM is linked to lower AFP levels and a higher risk of high-grade HCC.