TNF and ischemia: In addition, the TM extract and its bioactive ingredients exert anti-inflammatory effects by downregulating a variety of proinflammatory mediators, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and nitric oxide, in various models of ischemia-induced injury (Li et al., 2018; Seok et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2020).