Interestingly, these studies suggest that GM-CSF exerts its protective effects directly and autocrinally on IECs, rather than on bone marrow-derived myeloid cells, against DSS-induced colitis or NSAID-induced ileitis by promoting the proliferation of intestinal stem cells and enhancing antiapoptotic pathways, thereby conferring resistance to gut injury [80, 81]. Here, CSF2 is linked to colitis.