Indeed, vascular calcification and osteoporosis share common risk factors and pathophysiological mechanisms, including the relationship between bone-derived proteins (e.g., osteoprotegerin and osteopontin) and vascular pathology, as well as the involvement of intercellular protein systems like the RANK/RANKL/OPG axis and Wnt signaling pathways (43). Here, SPP1 is linked to osteoporosis.