TNF and fetal growth restriction: Studies have shown that elevated levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), interleukin-10 (IL-10), or tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in amniotic fluid or serum are associated with preterm birth (67–71); and that the plasma marker of inflammation C-reactive protein (CRP), is associated with preterm birth, preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction (72–74).