TLR4 and neoplasm: These receptors, which encompass Toll-like receptors (TLRs), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors, RIG-I-like receptors, and absent in melanoma 2-like receptors, play a role in the pathogenesis of colitis-associated cancer in animal models.223 Notably, F. nucleatum can activate TLR4 signaling, thereby enhancing tumor development, while Peptostreptococcus anaerobius has been shown to promote CRC through TLR2 and TLR4 pathways in rodent models.224