TNF and atrial fibrillation: The activation of this signalingpathway subsequently stimulates the release of profibrotic cytokines, such astransforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), tumor necrosisfactor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and monocytechemoattractant protein-1, thereby causing cardiac fibrosis and AF [30, 32].Moreover, angiotensin II can induce electrophysiological remodeling and AFthrough the shortening of the effective refractory period and action potentialduration in atrial myocytes, in turn potentiating the slow component of delayedrectifier potassium channels [30, 33].