TNF and infection: Furthermore, ZIKV-IBH infection led to a pronounced upregulation of cytokines associated with innate immune responses, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin–1 beta (IL-1β), C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 8 (CXCL8), chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), and granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor (CSF2), compared with ZIKV-PRV infection at 48 h post-infection (Figure 3C).