TNF and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Multiple lines of evidence from human and animal studies have demonstrated that ALS is associated with both inflammatory (local, innate immunity) and immune responses (peripheral adaptive responses), with tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), TNF receptor 1 (TNFR1), interleukin 6 (IL-6), IL-1β, IL-8, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) measured in the blood significantly elevated in ALS cases compared with controls.