TGFB1 and cancer: GSVA also demonstrated the activation levels of Hallmark pathways associated with cancer in different differentiation states of malignant epithelial cells (Figure 2F), in which transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), PI3k-AKT-mTOR, Wnt-β-Catenin, reactive oxygen species (ROS), angiogenesis and other important signaling pathway activation levels were significantly upregulated.