TNF and colitis: The EVs released fromT. spiralis muscle larvae with immunomodulatory functions were found to prevent colitis, mediated by inhibiting the DSS-induced M1 macrophage polarization and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-17A, and IL-1β), but promoting the infiltration of M2 macrophages and the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., IL-4, IL-10, TGF-β, and IL-13) into the colon[117].