Datasets of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained by the module score–integrated R script based on bona fide “loser” genes: DDIT3, ATF3, PPP1R15A, RICTOR, and NFE2L2 (Lima et al, 2021) across the disease spectrum from control (ControlHPAP), prediabetes (AABHPAP), type 1 diabetes (T1DHPAP), to type 2 diabetes (T2DHPAP) and including PFKFB3-expressing β-cells (T2DPFKFB3) (genomic pipeline, Fig 1B). Here, PPP1R15A is linked to type 1 diabetes mellitus.