DYRK1A and Intellectual disability: Like those with DYRK1A haploinsufficiency, individuals with DS often present with intellectual disability, along with craniofacial abnormalities, and musculoskeletal deficits, potentially due to the roles of DYRK1A in bone formation, osteoclastogenesis, neurogenesis, and synaptogenesis (Lee et al., 2009; Park and Chung, 2013).