On day 2 post-infection, urine concentrations of IL-8 in the FimH-DSG and combination vaccine groups had decreased by approximatively 10- and 3.5-fold, respectively (geometric mean of 5.9 pg/mL and 11 pg/mL) compared with levels measured in the urine of placebo-treated NHPs (geometric mean of 54.2 pg/mL) (Fig. 4A). Here, CXCL8 is linked to infection.