TNF and systemic lupus erythematosus: On the other hand, exposure of pediatric lupus patients to high PM2.5 concentrations has been associated with increased risk of nephritis, increased 24 h urine protein and leukocyturia, decreased serum C3 levels, increased double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA) antibodies, and increased inflammatory interleukins such as TNF-α, INF-α, IL-10 and IL-17 [69,70].