TNF and geroderma osteodysplastica: IGF-1, recognized as an autoantigen in GO, contributes to the disease’s pathogenesis by activating downstream signaling pathways, including MAPK and NF-κB, which drive orbital fibroblast proliferation and inflammation via TSH-stimulated proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α.