Given the contrasting results of in vitro and in vivo studies and the pathophysiological role of dysregulated angiogenesis and inflammation in the occurrence of organ dysfunction in this patient group, e.g. lupus nephritis and pulmonary arterial hypertension [23, 24], we critically appraised the available evidence regarding the association between VEGF and SLE. Here, VEGFA is linked to pulmonary arterial hypertension.