MIF and brain ischemia: MIF not only enhances intraplaque inflammation through macrophage secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, including MIF, leading to plaque instability but also accelerates foam cell formation by promoting macrophage uptake of oxidized low-density lipoproteins, which further contributes to atherosclerosis (Asare et al., 2013; Sinitski et al., 2019), ultimately triggering the development of cardiovascular disease, which decreases cerebral blood flow and leads to cerebral ischemia and hypoxia.