CSF2 and cancer: Meanwhile, GM-CSF enhances the immune response in peptide-based cancer vaccines by promoting dendritic cell differentiation and maturation, improving peptide antigen presentation to T cells, and stimulating pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion, with clinical studies showing that GM-CSF combined with peptide-based cancer vaccines is safe, well tolerated, and effective in increasing T-cell responses and PFS in melanoma patients [119,195,196].